In West Asia, European imperial pressure prompted dramatic shifts in leadership. Ottoman sultans like Abdul Hamid II navigated Western encroachment through autocracy and strategic infrastructure, while Persian rulers of the Qajar dynasty granted controversial concessions to European powers. Responding to growing foreign control, reformers like Jamal al-Din al-Afghani promoted Pan-Islamism and political modernization, laying the groundwork for anti-colonial nationalist movements across the region.

Comments

Post a Comment